Motivation of the day

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> The guy I liked most was Steve jobs because he was a guy living with his time through his guts, he was not a graduate from any high rank Universities but what he knew was where he is going  and what he wants from his life here is part of one  his speeches,(Your time is limited, so don't waste it living someone else's life. Don't be trapped by dogma - which is living with the results of other people's thinking. Don't let the noise of others' opinions drown out your own inner voice. And most important, have the courage to follow your heart and intuition).<br /> <br />  </div>

Motivation of the day

The guy I liked most was Steve jobs because he was a guy living with his time through his guts, he was not a graduate from any high rank Un...

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Just a reminder: UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <div class="csc-header csc-header-n1"> <h1 class="csc-firstHeader">  </h1> </div> <!-- Header: [end] --> <!-- Image block: [begin] --> <br /> <div class="csc-textpic csc-textpic-intext-right"> <div class="csc-textpic-imagewrap"> <dl class="csc-textpic-image csc-textpic-firstcol csc-textpic-lastcol" style="width: 250px;"> <dt><a href="http://www.etc-graz.at/typo3/fileadmin/user_upload/ETC-Hauptseite/publikationen/Broschueren/ETC-AEMR-engl-Minifolder-Web.pdf" target="page"><img alt="" border="0" height="375" src="http://www.etc-graz.at/typo3/typo3temp/pics/10e65f4cd6.jpg" width="250" /></a></dt> <dd class="csc-textpic-caption"></dd></dl> </div> <div class="csc-textpic-text"> <!-- Text: [begin] --> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Adopted by the United Nations on December 10^th 1948</strong>  </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 1</strong> All human beings are born free and equal. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 2</strong> Everyone is entitled to the same human rights without discrimination of any kind. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 3</strong> Everyone has the human right to life, liberty, and security. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 4</strong> No one shall be held in slavery or servitude. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 5</strong> No one shall be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 6</strong> Everyone has the human right to be recognized everywhere as a person before the law </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 7</strong> Everyone is equal before the law and has the human right to equal protection of the law. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 8</strong> Everyone has the human right to a remedy if their human rights are violated. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 9</strong> No one shall be arrested, detained, or exiled arbitrarily. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 10</strong> Everyone has the human right to a fair trial. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 11</strong> Everyone has the human right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 12</strong> Everyone has the human right to privacy and family life. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 13</strong> Everyone has the human right to freedom of movement and residence within the state, to leave any country and to return to one's country. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 14</strong> Everyone has the human right to seek asylum from persecution. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 15</strong> Everyone has the human right to a nationality. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 16</strong> All adults have the human right to marry and found a family. Women and men have equal<strong> </strong>human rights to marry, within marriage, and at its dissolution. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 17</strong> Everyone has the human right to own property. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 18</strong> Everyone has the human right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 19</strong> Everyone has the human right to freedom of opinion and expression. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 20</strong> Everyone has the human right to peaceful assembly and association. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 21</strong> Everyone has the human right to take part in government of one's country directly or through free and fair elections and access to the public<strong> </strong>service </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 22 </strong>Everyone has the human right to social security and to the realization of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for dignity. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 23 </strong>Everyone has the human right to work, to just conditions of work, to protection against unemployment, to equal pay for equal work, to sufficient pay to ensure a dignified existence for one's self and one's family, and the human right to join a trade union<strong>. </strong> </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 24</strong> Everyone has the human right to rest and leisure. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 25</strong> Everyone has the human right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 26</strong> Everyone has the human right to education including free and compulsory elementary education and human rights education. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 27</strong> Everyone has the human right to participate freely in the cultural life and to share in scientific progress, as well as to protection of their artistic, literary or scientific creations, </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 28 </strong>Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which these rights can be fully realized. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 29</strong> Everyone has duties to the community. </div> <div class="bodytext"> <strong>Article 30 </strong>None of the human rights in this Declaration can be used to justify violating another human right. </div> </div> </div> </div>

Just a reminder: UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

  Adopted by the United Nations on December 10 th 1948   Article 1 All human beings are born free and equal...

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Viena Convention on Succession of states in Respect of Treates

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> In 1967, the International Law Commission (‘the Commission’) began work on the subject of succession of States in respect of treaties. In 1974, the Commission submitted to the United Nations General Assembly a final set of draft articles on Succession of States in respect of Treaties with a recommendation that the Assembly should convene a conference of plenipotentiaries to study the draft articles and conclude a convention on the subject. The General Assembly adopted resolutions 3496 (XXX) of 15 December 1975 and 31/18 of 24 November 1976 to this effect by which it accordingly decided that the draft articles should be considered by a United Nations Conference on Succession of States in respect of Treaties (‘the Conference’) to be held at Vienna from 4 April to 6 May 1997.</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The Conference was held as scheduled but partly because the draft articles raised some controversial issues it recommended that the General Assembly decide to reconvene the Conference in the first half of 1978 for a final session. The resumed session of the Conference, approved by General Assembly resolution 32/47 of 8 December 1981, was held at Vienna from 31 July to 23 August 1978 and resulted in the adoption of the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties (‘the 1978 Convention’).</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> Given the subject matter, there was no question of the 1978 Convention being based on the very successful 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (‘the 1969 Convention’). Instead, the Commission decided to deal with the subject as a question of succession. However, in appointing Sir Humphrey Waldock as the first Special Rapporteur (he had previously been its Special Rapporteur for the law of treaties), the Commission’s method of work would follow the pattern set by the elaboration of the draft articles on the law of treaties which eventually became the 1969 Convention. In 1973, Sir Francis Vallat succeeded Waldock for the last year of the Commission’s work on the subject.</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The 1978 Convention did not enter into force until 1996 when it achieved the necessary fifteen expressions of consent to be bound. This was almost eighteen years after its adoption. Entry into force only happened because, between 1991 and 1996, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Estonia, Slovakia, Slovenia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine acceded or succeeded to the 1978 Convention. Not surprisingly, as new States they presumably thought it would be useful to them. Estonia is included as a new State even though it resumed its previous statehood. However, since it had been for fifty years <em>de facto</em> part of the Soviet Union, it had to resolve succession problems of some novelty. Although Byelorussia (now Belarus) and Ukraine had been part of the Soviet Union, as the result of a political deal involving also India (which became independent only in 1947) all three became founding Members of the United Nations. Yet, the former Soviet republics also had their own succession problems (on the particular treaty succession problems of Estonia, and Belarus and Ukraine, see A. Aust, <em>Modern Treaty Law and Practice</em>, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 377-8 and 376-7, respectively). Today, the 1978 Convention has but twenty-two parties, the most recent being the Republic of Moldova. So, why has the 1978 Convention not been more successful?</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The so-called Cold War was still an important factor when the 1978 Convention was adopted. As a consequence, some of the draft articles were adopted by separate votes. In addition, there was no general doctrine which resolved the problems of succession to treaties. In particular, the situations in which new States are created vary enormously, and a “one-size fits all” approach was quite unsuitable. The number of different theories of succession did not make the task of devising a text on the subject any easier. As a result, the 1978 Convention contains much that is contentious progressive development of international law. When the Commission was developing its draft articles (in the relatively short space of seven years) the most recent State practice related to former colonies but was not consistent. Consequently, those rules of the 1978 Convention which are concerned with newly independent States are excessively complex. They also give undue prominence to the so-called “clean slate” principle, and not enough weight to the abundant State practice of concluding devolution agreements or, even more importantly, making declarations of succession. Moreover, decolonisation was almost at its end by 1978, and, unless a successor State agrees otherwise, the 1978 Convention does not apply to a succession of States which occurs before its entry into force (6 November 1996).</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> Nor did the 1978 Convention’s rules about the break-up of States reflect modern State practice, in particular the great variety of situations occurring at the end of the twentieth century. The reunification of Germany took place in 1990. The break-up of the Soviet Union occurred in 1991, and of Yugoslavia mainly between 1992 and 1993. The so-called velvet divorce of Czechoslovakia happened in 1993. In short, before the 1990s there was little of recent practice on which to draw.</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> Although parts of the 1978 Convention may have been relied upon in drafting certain bilateral succession agreements – an example in point being the strong endorsement of article 34(1) (Succession of States in cases of separation of parts of a State) in the practices of the successor States to the former Czechoslovakia – its influence and practical value is likely to continue to be considerably less than that of the 1969 Convention. Notwithstanding the reference by the Arbitration Commission of the Conference for Peace in Yugoslavia (also known as the ‘Badinter Commission’) in its Opinions Nos. 1 and 9 to the 1978 Convention as embodying principles of international law, article 34 cannot necessarily be taken as reflecting customary international law. </div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> Although the 1978 Convention is an example of progressive development of international law, the customary rules of international law on succession of States in respect of treaties apply to most States, yet they are not reflected in the text of the 1978 Convention. Therefore, it is not a reliable guide to such rules of customary law on treaty succession. Yet, albeit its late entry into force, practice following the end of the Cold War and decisions of the International Court of Justice may now have breathed a little life into a few of its provisions (see <em>Application of the Genocide Convention (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia)</em>, <em>I.C.J. Reports 1996</em>, pp. 595 and 611-12 and <em>Gab</em>č<em>íkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia)</em>, <em>I.C.J. Reports 1997</em>, pp. 7 and 72). But, they are unlikely to result in many States wanting now to be parties to the 1978 Convention. So, it may remain little more than an interesting historical document.<br /><br /><br /><strong>Related Materials</strong><br /><br /><em><strong>A. Jurisprudence</strong></em><br /><br /> Arbitration Commission of the Conference for Peace in Yugoslavia (‘Badinter Commission’), <em>Opinion No. 1 on Questions Arising from the Dissolution of Yugoslavia </em>(reproduced in <em>International Legal Materials</em>, vol. 31 (1992), p. 1497).<br /><br /> Arbitration Commission of the Conference for Peace in Yugoslavia (‘Badinter Commission’), <em>Opinion No. 9 on Questions Arising from the Dissolution of Yugoslavia </em>(reproduced in <em>International Legal Materials</em>, vol. 31 (1992), p. 1523).<br /><br /> International Court of Justice, <a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/91/7349.pdf" target="_blank"><em>Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Preliminary Objections, (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996</em></a>, p. 595.<br /><br /> International Court of Justice, <a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/92/7375.pdf" target="_blank"><em>Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997</em></a>, p. 7. <br /><br /><em><strong>B. Documents<br /></strong></em>Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its twenty-sixth session, 6 May - 26 July 1974, Official Records of the General Assembly, Twenty-ninth session, Supplement No. 10 (<a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/publications/yearbooks/Ybkvolumes(e)/ILC_1974_v2_p1_e.pdf" target="_blank">A/9610/Rev.1</a>, reproduced in <em>Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1974</em>, vol. II (Part One), chapter II).<br /><br /><a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/3496(XXX)" target="_blank">General Assembly resolution 3496 (XXX)</a> of 15 December 1975 (Succession of States in respect of treaties).<br /><br /><a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/31/18" target="_blank">General Assembly resolution 31/18</a> of 24 November 1976 (United Nations Conference on Succession of States in respect of Treaties).<br /><br /><a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/32/47" target="_blank">General Assembly resolution 32/47</a> of 8 December 1977 (United Nations Conference on Succession of States in respect of Treaties).<br /><br /> United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, First Session, Vienna, 4 April - 6 May 1977, <em>Official Records</em>,Vol. I: Summary records of the plenary meetings and of the meetings of the Committee of the Whole (<a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://untreaty.un.org/cod/diplomaticconferences/succ-treaties-1978/vol/english/vol_I_e.pdf" target="_blank">A/CONF.80/16</a>).<br /><br /> United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, Resumed Session, Vienna, 31 July - 23 August 1978, <em>Official Records</em>,Vol. II: Summary records of the plenary meetings and of the meetings of the Committee of the Whole (<a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://untreaty.un.org/cod/diplomaticconferences/succ-treaties-1978/vol/english/vol_II_e.pdf" target="_blank">A/CONF.80/16/Add.1</a>).<br /><br /> United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, 1977 session and resumed session 1978, Vienna, 4 April - 6 May 1977 and 31 July - 23 August 1978, <em>Official Records, </em>Vol. III: Documents of the Conference (<a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://untreaty.un.org/cod/diplomaticconferences/succ-treaties-1978/vol/english/vol_III_e.pdf" target="_blank">A/CONF.80/16/Add.2</a>).<br /><br /><strong><em>C. Doctrine</em><br /></strong>A. Aust, <em>Modern Treaty Law and Practice</em>, 2nd ed., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 367-391.<br /><br /> D. P. O’Connell, <em>The Law of State Succession</em>, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1956.<br /><br /> J. Klabbers, M. Koskenniemi, O. Ribbelink and A. Zimmermann (eds.), <em>State Practice Regarding State Succession and Issues of Recognition: the Pilot Project of the Council of Europe</em>, (on behalf of Erik Castrén Institute of International law and Human Rights, Finland, T.M.C. Asser Institute, The Netherlands, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, Germany), The Hague, London, Boston, Kluwer Law International, 1999.<br /><br /> M. Shaw, <em>International Law</em>, 6th ed., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 966-984.<br /><br /> A. Watts, <em>The International Law Commission 1949-1998</em>, vol. II, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 987 <em>et seq</em>. </div> </div>

Viena Convention on Succession of states in Respect of Treates

In 1967, the International Law Commission (‘the Commission’) began work on the subject of succession of States in respect of treaties. In ...

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Convention against Turture and Other Crual ,Inhuman or degrading Treatment or Punishment.

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <strong>I. The Torture Convention</strong><br /> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> <a href="http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/images/ha/catcidtp/03-l.jpg" rel="lightbox-intronote" title="1 February 1982 - Thirty-eighth Regular Session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland: Delegations attending the opening meeting."><strong><img align="right" alt="1 February 1982, Commission on Human Rights addressing the problems of genocide, political liquidations, mass killings, arbitrary and summary executions, disappearances, torture, etc." border="0" class="img-right" height="158" src="http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/images/ha/catcidtp/intro_note1.jpg" title="1 February 1982, Commission on Human Rights addressing the problems of genocide, political liquidations, mass killings, arbitrary and summary executions, disappearances, torture, etc." vspace="5" width="230" /></strong></a>The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (the “Torture Convention”) was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1984 (resolution 39/46). The Convention entered into force on 26 June 1987 after it had been ratified by 20 States.</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The Torture Convention was the result of many years’ work, initiated soon after the adoption of the Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (the “Torture Declaration”) by the General Assembly on 9 December 1975 (resolution 3452 (XXX)).</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> In fact, the Torture Declaration was intended to be the starting-point for further work against torture. In a second resolution, also adopted on 9 December 1975, the General Assembly requested the Commission on Human Rights to study the question of torture and any necessary steps for ensuring the effective observance of the Torture Declaration (resolution 3453 (XXX)). Two years later, on 8 December 1977, the General Assembly specifically requested the Commission on Human Rights to draw up a draft convention against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the light of the principles embodied in the Torture Declaration (resolution 32/62).</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The Commission on Human Rights began its work on this subject at its session in February-March 1978. A working group was set up to deal with this item, and the main basis for the discussions in the working group was a draft convention presented by Sweden. During each of the subsequent years until 1984 a similar working group was set up to continue the work on the draft convention.</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> There were a number of issues on which it was initially difficult to reach agreement. In particular, the following issues gave rise to long discussions:<br /><br /><strong><em>The Definition of Torture</em></strong></div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The definition of torture which appeared in the Torture Declaration was considered not to be precise enough and was criticized on various points. The discussions resulted in a more elaborate – and also more complex – definition which appears in article 1, paragraph 1, of the Torture Convention<br /><br /><strong><em>Jurisdiction</em></strong></div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The discussion centred round the concept of so-called universal jurisdiction. In other words, the question was whether each State should undertake, in respect of torture, to assume jurisdiction not only based on territory or the offender’s nationality but also over acts of torture committed outside its territory by persons not being its nationals. The principle of universal jurisdiction – which had already been accepted in conventions against hijacking of aircraft and other terrorist acts – was eventually accepted and found its place in article 5, paragraph 2, of the Torture Convention.<br /><br /><strong><em>International Implementation</em></strong></div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> As the effectiveness of the Torture Convention, like that of many other human rights conventions, would depend to a large extent on the supervision system, the implementation at the international level gave rise to extensive discussions. It was finally decided that a Committee against Torture would be set up (article 17 of the Torture Convention) with the following tasks:</div> <table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" style="width: 98%px;"><tbody> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top" width="4%"> </td><td class="p-left-justified" valign="top" width="96%">(i)   To receive, study and comment on periodic reports from the States parties on the measures they have taken to give effect to their undertakings under the Convention (article 19);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(ii)  To initiate an investigation when there is reliable information which appears to contain well-founded indications that torture is being systematically practised in the territory of a State party (article 20);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(iii) To receive and examine complaints by one State party of violations of the Convention by another State party (article 21); and</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(iv) To receive and examine applications by individuals claiming to be victims of a violation of the Convention by a State party (article 22). </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> However, the competences of the Committee against Torture under (ii), (iii) and (iv) were not made compulsory but apply with the following modifications:</div> <table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" style="width: 98%px;"><tbody> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top" width="5%">-</td><td class="p-left-justified" valign="top" width="95%">A State party may “opt out” and declare that it does not recognize the Committee’s competence to initiate investigations under article 20 (article 28);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top">-</td><td class="p-left-justified">The Committee’s competence to examine inter-State complaints only applies when a State party has specifically recognized this competence (article 21);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top">-</td><td class="p-left-justified">The Committee’s competence to examine applications by individuals only applies when a State party has specifically recognized this competence (article 22).</td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="p-left-justified">    <strong><em>A State Party’s Undertakings</em></strong></div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> Most of the provisions of the Torture Convention deal with the obligations of the States parties. These obligations may be summarized as follows:</div> <table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="2" style="width: 98%px;"><tbody> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top" width="4%"> </td><td class="p-left-justified" valign="top" width="96%">(i)   Each State party shall take effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to prevent acts of torture. The prohibition against torture shall be absolute and shall be upheld also in a state of war and in other exceptional circumstances (article 2);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(ii)  No State party may expel or extradite a person to a State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture (article 3);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(iii) Each State party shall ensure that acts of torture are serious criminal offences within its legal system (article 4);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(iv) Each State party shall, on certain conditions, take a person suspected of the offence of torture into custody and make a preliminary inquiry into the facts (article 6);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(v)  Each State party shall either extradite a person suspected of the offence of torture or submit the case to its own authorities for prosecution (article 7);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(vi) Each State party shall ensure that its authorities make investigations when there is reasonable ground to believe that an act of torture has been committed (article 12);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(vii) Each State party shall ensure that an individual who alleges that he has been subjected to torture will have his case examined by the competent authorities (article 13);</td></tr> <tr><td align="right" class="p-left-justified" valign="top"> </td><td class="p-left-justified">(viii) Each State party shall ensure to victims of torture an enforceable right to fair and adequate compensation (article 14).</td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="p-left-justified">    <strong>II. The Optional Protocol</strong></div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> An Optional Protocol to the Torture Convention was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 18 December 2002 (resolution 57/199). The Optional Protocol, which entered into force on 22 June 2006, establishes a system of regular visits by international and national bodies to places of detention in order to prevent torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. A Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment has been set up to carry out such visits and to support States parties and national institutions in performing similar functions at the national level.<br /><br /><strong>III. The Committee Against Torture</strong></div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The Committee against Torture holds two annual sessions. At each session, the Committee examines reports from a number of States parties. Each report is examined orally in the presence of one or more representatives of the State concerned. Each State whose report is to be examined at a session is informed in advance of the main questions the Committee wishes to be discussed. After the examination of each report the Committee adopts its conclusions and recommendations. The Committee may also adopt general comments on specific provisions of the Convention or issues related to their implementation.</div> <div class="p_HA_tabs"> The Committee against Torture has also set up a working group to prepare the examination of individual communications received under article 22 of the Torture Convention. The working group examines the admissibility and merits of the communications and makes recommendations to the Committee.<br /><br /><strong>Related Materials</strong><br /><br /><em><strong>A. Legal Instruments</strong></em><br /><br /><a class="a_underline-padding" href="http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=a/res/57/199" target="_blank">Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment</a>, New York, 18 December 2002, General Assembly resolution 57/199.<br /><br /><em><strong>B. Doctrine</strong></em><br /><br /> J. Herman Burgers and H. Danelius, <em>The United Nations Convention against Torture. A Handbook on the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment</em>, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988.</div> </div>

Convention against Turture and Other Crual ,Inhuman or degrading Treatment or Punishment.

I. The Torture Convention The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (the “Torture Conv...

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A conventional approach

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 24.9pt; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 21pt; letter-spacing: -0.6pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b> </div> <br /> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">David Williams QC provides an introduction to the 1996 Hague Convention<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="http://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/nlj/files/styles/article_image_wide/public/article_images/Williams%20pic_1.JPG?itok=vzWG7fQd" style='width:150pt;height:103.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\User\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.jpg" o:title="Williams%20pic_1"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="http://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/nlj/files/styles/article_image_wide/public/article_images/Williams%20pic_1.JPG?itok=vzWG7fQd" height="138" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_1" width="200" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">The <a href="http://www.hcch.net/upload/conventions/txt34en.pdf"><span style="border: currentColor; color: #015697; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"><span style="border: currentColor;">Hague Convention on Parental Responsibility and Protection of Children</span></span></a> (1996 Hague Convention) came into effect on 1 November 2012 after a very long gestation period. Its entry into force represents another step towards a common approach in the international family law community on issues such as jurisdiction, reciprocal enforcement and co-operation. Like its half-sibling, EC Regulation 2201/2003 (BIIR), with which it shares much of its genetic make-up, it covers public and private law cases, abduction situations and placement of children abroad. Although much of its content is already covered in the EU by BIIR there are significant members of the international legal community outside the EU who are now covered and in some narrow areas the 1996 Hague Convention covers issues that BIIR does not. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Origins</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The 1996 Hague Convention, is the third in a line of Conventions set up with the same fundamental purpose of ensuring the protection of children in international situations. It replaces the 1961 Convention which gave rise to problems in respect of the foundation of jurisdiction, in particular in giving ultimate priority to nationality rather than habitual residence. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">It is intended to provide practical mechanisms for co-operation between contracting states in implementing child protection measures. It is not intended to change the substantive law on child protection of any signatory state (see <a href="http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php?act=publications.details&pid=2943&dtid=3"><span style="color: #015697; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Explanatory Report</span></a> by Paul Lagarde, para 7). This is also consistent with the way the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) has interpreted the effect of BIIR: See </span><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">JMCB-v-LE </span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">[2011] 1 FLR 518.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Aims/purpose</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The full title, the Convention of 19th October 1996 on Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, Recognition, Enforcement and Co-operation in respect of Parental Responsibility and Measures for the Protection of Children, repeats the titles of the four principal chapters of the Convention so as to “not lend itself to any confusion” (Lagarde). It does what it says on the tin.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The 1996 Convention does not aim to create a uniform international law of child protection. Instead, the Convention’s function is to improve the protection of children in international situations by providing the mechanics for an integrated system of co-operation, recognition and enforcement. It aims to avoid legal and administrative conflicts and to build the structure for effective international co-operation in child protection matters between the different systems (Outline).<br /> <br /> It is intended to have a broader scope than the 1980 Hague Convention and the 1993 Hague Convention on adoption.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The objects of the Convention are defined in Art 1:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 34.6pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">"The objects of the present Convention are: </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 34.6pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a.    to determine the state whose authorities have jurisdiction to take measures directed to the protection of the person or property of the child;<br /> b.    to determine which law is to be applied by such authorities in exercising their jurisdiction;<br /> c.    to determine the law applicable to parental responsibility (PR);<br /> d.    to provide for the recognition and enforcement of such measures of protection in all contracting states;<br /> e.    to establish such co-operation between the authorities of the contracting states as may be necessary in order to achieve the purposes of this convention."<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">By Art 2, the Convention applies to children from birth until their 18th birthday.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The draft Practical Operation Handbook 2011 envisages that the children who could benefit from an implementation of the 1996 Convention include, among others: <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 34.6pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">a.    Those who are the subject of international parental disputes over custody or contact; </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /> b.    Those who are the subject of international abduction (including in those states which are not able to join the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention);<br /> c.    Those who are placed abroad in alternative care arrangements which do not come within the definition of adoption and are therefore outside the scope of the 1993 Hague Inter-country Adoption Convention;<br /> d.    Those who are the subject of cross-border trafficking and other forms of exploitation, including sexual abuse;<br /> e.    Those who are refugees or unaccompanied minors.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Practical information</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Signatories/entry into force</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Convention took effect on 1 January 2002 when ratified by a third country (Monaco, Czech Republic and Slovakia). However its take-up was then very limited until 2010 when the EU member states began to ratify. The Convention has entered into effect (or is soon to do so) in 36 states. Signatory states where it has not yet entered into effect are Belgium, Italy, Sweden and the US. New Zealand is also considering adopting the Convention. Morocco was one of the first to ratify. This was of great significance given that the Moroccan legal system is set in Islamic Law. An example of the attempt to engage with Islamic systems within the Convention is the inclusion of the Islamic institution of Kafala, an equivalent to adoption, when making provisions for cross-frontier placements of children in institutional care.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Interface with BIIR</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The EU recognised the potential benefits of the 1996 Convention and as a result incorporated much of the Convention into BIIR. Article 61 of BIIR gives the Regulation primacy over the Convention where they cover the same subject matter. The 1996 Convention will continue to have effect in matters which are not governed by BIIR, Art 62.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The correlation between the 1996 and BIIR is illustrated below:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="http://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/nlj/files/Hague%20Convention_Table%201.JPG" style='width:900pt;height:515.25pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\User\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image002.jpg" o:title="Hague%20Convention_Table%201"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="http://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/nlj/files/Hague%20Convention_Table%201.JPG" border="0" height="687" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="1200" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /> There are some significant differences between BIIR and the Convention. BIIR has no equivalent of the applicable law provisions but there are also differences in respect of provisional measures based on presence, on defences to recognition and on enforcement of protective measures made in 1980 Hague Abduction cases which are recognised under the 1996 Convention but not under BIIR: </span><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Purrucker-v-Perez</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">: C-256/09 [CJEU]. Conversely, the 1996 Convention does not contain divorce/separation jurisdictional provisions and has no equivalent of BIIR Art 11, in particular the “second bite of the cherry” provisions or the fast-track enforcement for contact or the certification provisions. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The majority of members of the EU and thus to whom BIIR applies have also ratified the 1996 Hague Convention. However this is not so for all.<br /> </span><span style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-no-proof: yes;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="http://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/nlj/files/Hague%20Convention_Table%202.JPG" style='width:900pt;height:565.5pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\User\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.jpg" o:title="Hague%20Convention_Table%202"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img alt="http://www.newlawjournal.co.uk/nlj/files/Hague%20Convention_Table%202.JPG" border="0" height="754" src="file:///C:/Users/User/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="1200" /><!--[endif]--></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /> The status table detailing the progress of the signatory states can be found <a href="http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php?act=conventions.status&cid=70"><span style="color: #015697; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">here</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sources of Information</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In addition to Paul Lagarde’s Explanatory Report, there is also a <a href="http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php?act=publications.details&pid=5535&dtid=2"><span style="color: #015697; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">draft Practical Operation Handbook</span></a> which is currently still under revision.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Implementation in England and Wales</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The FPR 2010 rr 12 and 31 contain the procedural requirements in respect of applications under the 1996 Convention. The practical issues of making an application may be the subject of a separate article. The central authority for England and Wales is the International Child Abduction and Contact Unit (ICACU). <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The practical application of the 1996 Convention</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">So far there is only one reported decision on the application (</span><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Re Y</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, Court of Appeal, 22.1.13) of the Convention and the responses to Hague Conference questionnaire to central authorities on the operation of Convention showed there was little experience in practice of how it worked. The draft Practical Operation Handbook contains many examples of how it might apply and in the next article we will consider these.<br /> <br /> </span><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Analysis & discussion of the Convention itself</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Convention comprises seven chapters of which four contain the substance and which make up the Title of the Convention:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 34.6pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a)    Jurisdiction, (Chapter II)<br /> (b)    Applicable Law (Chapter III)<br /> (c)    Recognition and Enforcement (Chapter IV)<br /> (d)    Co-operation. (Chapter V)<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Some other miscellaneous items of interest are found in the scope, general provisions and final clauses.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Jurisdiction: Chapter II</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Habitual residence</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The basic jurisdictional foundation for a court considering an application in respect of a child is found in Art 5 and is the habitual residence of the child. Where habitual residence changes jurisdiction will follow. The big question is what meaning will be ascribed to habitual residence? <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Presence of the child</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Art 6 provides the jurisdiction based on presence of the child—relevant both when the child has been displaced from their country of habitual residence or where their habitual residence cannot be established.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Abduction cases</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In abduction cases the jurisdiction of the country of habitual residence immediately prior to the abduction is retained by Art 7. This in large part mirrors Art 10 of BIIR although there are some slight differences as to the circumstances in which jurisdiction is lost (arising largely from the absence of the Art 11(6-8) equivalent in the Convention). The Art makes explicit reference to the fact that the courts of the requested state can make protective orders under Art 11.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Transfer of jurisdiction</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Articles 8 and 9 taken together provide a forum conveniens route to the transfer of jurisdiction similar to Art 15 of BIIR.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Prorogation in divorce or legal separation</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Article 10 permits a court dealing with divorce or separation to take jurisdiction over matters of PR as Art 12 of BIIR does.<br /> <br /> </span><b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Urgent measures</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Article 11 provides for situations where protective measures are urgently needed in relation to a child present in the territory of the contracting state. It is the equivalent of BIIR Art 20. It can be used in abduction situations (Explanatory Report, para 71-2). Because of the terms of Art 23 and automatic recognition these measures would be recognised in the country of habitual residence. In </span><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Re Y</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> the Court of Appeal concluded that undertakings fell within the definition of “protective measures” and were capable of recognition and enforcement. A significant issue remains whether they can be made enforceable in those civil law countries which do not have undertakings as part of their domestic legal framework. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Provisional measures</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Article 12 provides a jurisdiction by which provisional measures may be taken in respect of a child present in the state even where there is no urgency. Those measures must not be incompatible with measures taken in the state of primary jurisdiction and lapse as soon as the authorities of that state have taken a decision on protection. Article 12 cannot be used in abduction situations (Art 7(3)).<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Court first seised/Lis Pendens</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Article 13 prevents a court to whom an application has been made (and which might have jurisdiction under Arts 5–10) from exercising jurisdiction if at the time of commencement of those proceedings similar measures have been requested from another court having jurisdiction under Arts 5–10 and which are still pending. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Orders of continuing effect notwithstanding loss of jurisdiction</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Article 14 seeks to ensure that an order made in one country remains valid notwithstanding that the jurisdiction of that court has been lost, for instance following a lawful move. The Art makes clear that such an order may be superceded by a subsequent order of the court with the later jurisdiction which modifies, replaces or terminates the original measure. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Applicable law: Chapter III</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">This part of the Convention aims to bring some clarity to the circumstances in which the laws of one country may be exercised in the courts of another or where they may be relevant to the operation of the laws of another country by reason of a move across borders. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Law applicable to measures of protection</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Article 15(1) provides that in exercising their jurisdiction under Pt II (Arts 5-14) courts shall apply their own law. For English lawyers this is self-evident but for jurisdictions which might have applied the law relating to the nationality of the parties and the child (ie Spain) it is important. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">By Art 15(3) where protective measures have been taken in state A and the child moves to state B the law of state B governs the operation of those measures. So for instance where PR is granted by the courts of state A and the family moves to state B the laws of state B will thereafter govern the exercise of PR. Thus state A’s law might require a guardian to obtain court authority for certain acts but the law of state B would not then the measure may not operate in the way originally intended. Shared residence orders which define how parental authority is exercised may also create interesting issues.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Attribution or extinction of PR</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">The provision is not easy to follow but in essence provides that the attribution or extinction of PR is governed by the law of the state of the child’s habitual residence. Article 16(3) provides that PR acquired in state A will continue to exist in state B even if it would not have been acquired in state B on the same facts. Article 16(4) then provides the converse that if a person had not acquired PR by operation of law in state A they may acquire it in state B if habitual residence moves to that state. How this would work for instance in relation to unmarried fathers who are registered on a birth certificate in state A (but did not acquire PR) and moved to England is unclear as the Act sets out clear requirements as to the way registration is effected.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Exercise of PR</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">The exercise of PR is governed by the law of the state of the child’s habitual residence. If the child's habitual residence changes, it is governed by the law of the state of the new habitual residence. Its relevance may arise where for instance under the law of state A the holder of PR could act alone whereas under the law of state B he must act in conjunction with another.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Termination or modification of PR</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 18 confirms that measures may be taken to extinguish or modify PR created by operation of law, agreement or unilateral act and might be particularly relevant where following a number of moves too many individuals or authorities had acquired PR.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Protection of third parties</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 19 protects third parties who have entered a transaction with a child via their legal representative. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Applicable law rules apply to laws of non-member states, renvoi & public policy</span></i></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Articles 20–22 contain some hard to decipher provisions on these topics. Careful perusal of them with a cold towel wrapped around ones head is necessary to begin to understand them. Their impact is beyond the scope of this article and the understanding of the author.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Recognition & enforcement: Chapter IV</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Chapter IV contains six Articles—in contrast to Chapter III of BIIR which contains 31. Part of this is explained by the greater detail given in BIIR to the procedure to be followed and part by the certification provisions in BIIR and the separate treatment of enforcement of access rights and Art 11(6-8) return orders.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 23 contains the basic principle that a measure taken one contracting state shall be recognised by operation of law in other contracting states.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Recognition by operation of law means simply that no proceedings are required to obtain recognition–however if a party seeks to enforce then this will require proceedings and within these another party may challenge recognition. Article 43 provides that documents (including orders) are exempt from legalisation or other formality. The grounds on which recognition (and therefore enforcement) may be refused are very similar to those found in Article 23 (a)–(g) of BIIR—although not identical, including manifest incompatibility, child not heard and default judgments. <o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 24 provides the procedure for seeking recognition or non-recognition of a “measure” (hence not including PR acquired by operation of law). Thus, a left-behind parent on a relocation case may seek to have the order which permits the custodial parent to live in England recognised so as to prevent a further move on.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 25 prevents the enforcing court questioning the jurisdictional basis on which the order was made. Article 27 provides that the enforcing court cannot review the merits of the decision.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">If recognition alone is insufficient and enforcement/registration for enforcement is required, Art 26 provides that such shall take place by a simple and rapid procedure as determined by the laws of the requested state. This is now found in the FPR. Enforcement may be refused on the grounds set out in Art 23. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 28 confirms that in enforcement applications the measure to be enforced is treated as a domestic order. If the measure is one which has no equivalent in the law of the requested state—the Explanatory Report gives an example of a public law measure—then the requested state may adapt it to fit what it can achieve or may need to exercise its own substantive jurisdiction (assuming a change of habitual residence). </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Co-operation: Chapter V</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">In support of the implementation and effectiveness of Chapters II, III and IV the Convention aims to improve the exchange of information between jurisdictions. Two lines of communication are envisaged. One is via the creation of central authorities and the other is by direct communication between competent authorities. This it seems may include courts as well as relevant public bodies. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 30 creates a general obligation to co-operate. Article 31 contains the core obligations; an obligation to facilitate communications in relation to applications for the transfer of jurisdiction, to facilitate by mediation, conciliation or similar means agreed solutions for the protection of the child and to provide assistance on discovering the whereabouts of a child where it appears the child may be present and in need of protection in the requested state. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">A central authority (or other competent authority) may make a request to another central authority in respect of a child who has a substantial connection with the requesting state but who is habitually resident and present in another state for a report on the situation of the child and request that protective measures are taken. The requested state is not obliged to provide the report. This would certainly cover relocation cases where the left behind parent continues to reside in the requesting state but has lost contact or who has concerns over the situation of the child.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 33 is the direct equivalent of BIIR Art 56 and imposes a mandatory requirement on the placing authority to consult with the CA or other competent authority of the requested state. The consent of the CA or other competent authority is also mandatory before placement can occur. In </span><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">HSE-v-SC & AC</span></i><span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;"> C-92/12 PPU in the CJEU the ICACU confirmed they were not “the competent authority” within Art 56. The CJEU confirmed that the phrase must mean an authority governed by public law. The CJEU also confirmed that the placement order would have to be declared enforceable before placement occurred and that any appeal against such a declaration should not have a suspensive effect. See also: </span><i><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">HSE Ireland v SF (A Minor) </span></i><span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">[2012] EWHC 1640 (Fam), [2012] 2 FLR 1131.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">The FPR have been amended from 1 July 2012 to take account of this decision. In particular this contemplates that the arrangements for the placement, the immigration situation and the costs consequences will be the subject of consultation.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 34 formalises and facilitates the exchange of information about children the subject or potential subjects of protective measures. The first part of Article 35 is an attempt to “beef up” Art 21 of the 1980 Abduction Convention in respect of access rights. The second part enables a left behind parent who seeks access to his child (who is habitually resident in another contracting state) to ask the authorities of his country to carry out an assessment of him for use in proceedings in the other country. That report may both gather information and evidence but also assess the left-behind parent’s suitability to have access and under what conditions. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Article 36 deals with the situation Thorpe LJ was recently highlighting of children the subject of, particularly public law proceedings being moved across a border to avoid the authorities. The Article imposes an obligation to inform the authorities of the other state.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">General Provisions: Chapter VI</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">This chapter covers a miscellany of items including the provision of a certificate to a parent/guardian confirming their authority to act, confirmation that the Convention does not affect the operation of the 1980 Hague Convention and that the 1996 Convention may be invoked to secure the return of the child and that the Convention only applies to measures if they are taken in a state after the Convention has entered into force for that state. So, old orders are not covered. For recognition and enforcement, the measure has to have been taken after the Convention entered into force for the state taking the original measure and for the country in which the recognition is sought. So for England any order which predates the entry into force will not be covered even if the 1996 Convention was in force in the country of origin.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Conclusion</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 6.9pt; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span lang="EN" style="border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 9pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">Given the limited number of states (outside the EU) where the Convention has entered into force the use of it will perhaps be limited. However as the membership expands, and in particular if the US is able to get the Convention into effect this latest in the line of Hague Conventions should develop a growing impact</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Droid Sans"; font-size: 8.5pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;"> <o:p><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></o:p></div> </div>

A conventional approach

  David Williams QC provides an introduction to the 1996 Hague Convention The Hague Convention on Parental Responsibility and P...

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